Economics and History

Three Essays In Search of a Point

2011-11-21T15:40:00.000-08:00

I just received a job market packet from a large university, which I will not name. The dissertations include "Three Essays in Applied Economics," "Three Essays in Econometrics, and "Essays in Econometrics." Don't worry. There were three essays in "Essays in Econometrics."

Dealing with the Situation

2011-08-17T08:41:00.000-07:00

Here is an example of an attempt at a private solution to a negative externality.

Why Economics Needs History

2011-07-26T10:28:00.000-07:00

Barry Eichengreen's INET talk

NEP-HIS

2011-07-26T10:02:00.000-07:00

Bernardo Batiz-Lazo's blog on new papers in economic history.

Trust Companies in the Panic of 1907

2011-07-25T08:44:00.000-07:00

I recently posted "Sometimes Bad Things Happen to Good Trust Companies: A Reexamination of the Trust Company Panic of 1907" on SSRN

Abstract

The runs on trust companies during the Panic of 1907 have been blamed on unregulated financial innovation. New York trust companies are said to have taken advantage of gaps in regulation to engage in risky behavior, ultimately causing depositors to lose confidence in trust companies. This paper shows that there was not a general loss of confidence in trust companies. Runs were concentrated on a specific group of trust companies: the uptown trust companies. But there is no evidence of mismanagement or unusually risky asset allocation among these companies. Instead, it was the nature of their deposits that made them more susceptible to runs. While traditional trust companies focused on small numbers of large deposits from businesses, the uptown trust companies had large numbers of household deposits.

His Dark Materials and Economic History

2011-07-25T07:55:00.000-07:00

According to the documents at the end of Philip Pullman's Once Upon a Time in the North Lyra went on to study economic history. Her dissertation for an M.Phil in Economic History was titled "Developments in patterns of trade in the European Arctic region with particular reference to independent cargo balloon carriage (1950-1970)."

Today in American Economic History

2011-03-14T05:10:00.000-07:00

1794 Eli Whitney received a patent for the cotton gin.

1900 Congress passed The Gold Standard Act

government granted monoply

2011-03-13T12:50:00.000-07:00

The FDA just granted KV Pharmaceutical a monopoly on the sale of a drug to prevent premature births. For years it had been produced by pharmacies that sold it for $10 to $20. Doctors can no longer use those versions of the drug. KV is increasing the price of a shot from $10 to $1,500. Read the story here.

North and Kuran Video

2011-03-09T09:07:00.000-08:00

Douglass North and Timur Kuran discuss institutions and economic performance. Kuran gives a good taste of the argument in his latest book, The Long Divergence.

Great Stagnation

2011-02-12T14:54:00.000-08:00

There has been a great deal of discussion regarding innovation prompted by Tyler Cowen's new book The Great Stagnation. Part of the argument is that the rate of innovation has slowed. He acknowledges innovation in information technology but seems to discount its importance to the general population. While I think its clear that innovation and changes in productivity are not constant over time, I'm skeptical that we are in the midst of period of unusually slow rates of innovation, or that the changes in information technology have not had a large and widespread influence. This is what I wrote in The National Economy in 2006

" Observation of everyday life appears to support the productivity data and suggests the rate of innovation accelerated during the 1990s and the first decade of the twenty-first century. In 1985, most college students, like students for decades before them, went to the library to do research with books and journals, took hand-written notes, and typed papers on typewriters while listening to vinyl records. In 2005, students use laptop computers, smaller than portable typewriters, to access more research material online than was available in many college libraries in the 1980s. They type up papers on the same laptop using a word processing program that points out spelling and grammatical errors, and allows them to edit by cutting and pasting without having to retype anything. The vinyl records, first replaced by CDs, are now replaced by other electronic forms of music storage, with thousands of songs stored in devices the size of on old tape cassette. They carry phones smaller than a wallet, and the phones can make calls, store phone numbers, send text messages, receive voice mail, take and send video images, store information, and serve as a calculator."

One might note that I was writing about college students, but looking around now I believe I could say virtually the same thing of 5th graders surfing the internet, while listening to iPods, and texting.

What I'm Reading

2011-02-12T11:18:00.000-08:00

Credit Booms Gone Bust: Monetary Policy, Leverage Cycles, and Financial Crises, 1870-2008 by Moritz Schularick and Alan Taylor you can find a copy here.

What I am watching

2011-02-04T09:58:00.000-08:00

John Nye on institutions and economic development

Peace Corps

2011-02-01T09:17:00.000-08:00

UMW ranks first among small colleges and universities in Peace Corps volunteers

college and debt

2011-02-01T09:06:00.000-08:00

From "A Lifetime of of Student Debt? Not Likely" By Robin Wilson in the Chronicle of Higher Education

"In fact, despite stories of a large number of students who face gargantuan debt, about a third of graduates leave college with no debt at all for their education. Of the 65 percent who face debt, the average they owe is around $20,000. That's just below the starting price of a 2009 Ford Escape.

"Most people borrow a reasonable amount of money, they pay it back, and they are better for having gone to college," says Mr. McPherson.

But for a vocal minority of borrowers, problems with student-loan debt are very real. About 8 percent of undergraduates borrow at least double the national average.

Why do some students borrow more than $40,000 for a bachelor's degree when average borrowing is only half that? The answer is almost never that they are from very low-income families and need that much money to get a four-year degree. Public four-year colleges charged an average of just $6,585 for in-state tuition and fees in 2008-9. The total cost, including textbooks, room and board, and other living expenses, averages $18,326 a year — and financial aid brings that figure down for many students."

Still number one

2011-01-31T04:34:00.000-08:00

Manufacturing in the United States

Immigration and Innovation

2011-01-29T05:13:00.000-08:00

Here is an excellent editorial on immigration and innovation by Edward Schumacher-Matos in the the Washington Post.

Entrepreneurial immigrants have always played a leading role in American economic history. In 1789 Samuel Slater came from England, having memorized the latest innovations in cotton textile production.

North Conference

2010-12-03T08:40:00.000-08:00

The Center for New Insitutional Social Science at Washington University has videos from the conference honoring Doug North.

Un-Freaknomics?

2010-07-27T09:52:00.000-07:00

Forbes profile of Alvin Roth presents him as Un-Freakonomics.
"In contrast with the authors of bestselling books like Freakonomics, who are fascinated by obscure but intriguing questions like how to detect cheating by sumo wrestlers, Roth relishes real-world challenges." Much of Freakonomics was about crime and education, hardly obscure issues. I liked that Freakonomics presented economists as people who do research to try to find the answers to questions.
The problem with Freakonomics is the marketing, which was successful but dishonest. Graduating from MIT, teaching at Chicago, winning the John Bates Clark Medal, and publishing in top journals are not indicators that one has gone rogue. Exaggerting the novelty of Freakonomics does a disservice to people like Gary Becker, Douglass North and Roger Miller (who tried to sell a version of The Economics of Public Issues under the title of Abortion, Baseball and Weed), Dick McKenzie and Gordon Tullock, and many others.

The Neglected Field of Economic History?

2010-07-20T11:19:00.000-07:00

This is the title of a forum in the latest issue of Historically Speaking, with contributions from Robert Whaples, Deirdre McCloskey, Werner Troesken, Phil Hoffman, and Joel Mokyr.

Shaping the American Economy

2010-07-18T08:23:00.000-07:00

The June issue of the Gilder Lehrman Institute's online journal History Now focuses on American economic history with essays byJoyce Appleby, Richard Sylla, Brian Murphy, Roger Farmer, and T.J. Stiles.

What I'm Reading

2010-07-16T10:05:00.000-07:00

Peter Rousseau "The Market For Bank Stocks and the Rise of Deposit Banking in New York City, 1866-1897" NBER Working Paper 15770
Although not traded as actively on the New York Stock Exchange as they had been in the past, the over-the-counter market for these securities was efficient and the local newspapers quoted bank stock prices on a regular basis. The prices revealed in this market became reliable sources of information about the soundness of these institutions. Most important,
ordinary depositors – mostly those not actually investing in bank stocks – used this information to choose among the options for placing their savings. It is in this way that the market for bank stocks in New York contributed to increased public confidence in the banking system and the observed rise in deposits.

Take Care the Living

2010-07-15T07:37:00.000-07:00

Video of Jeff McClurken talking about his book Take Care of the Living: Reconstructing Confederate Veteran Families in Virginia.

Doug North

2010-07-14T14:42:00.001-07:00

The Center for New Institutional Social Sciences at Washington University has posted videos of Doug North talking about his most recent book Violence and Social Orders (Doug North, John Walllis and Barry Weingast)

Oliver Evans Mill

2010-07-14T14:13:00.000-07:00

In the 1780s Oliver Evans created a fully automated flour mill. He obtained patent no. 3 for it. George Washington had the system installed in his gristmill at Mount Vernon. The Mill has been resotred and is now the only fully operational Oliver Evans mill (or at least thats what they say at Mount Vernon). For any one interested in economic history it is an amazing sight. You have to go on the week end though; thats when they grind wheat. During the week they grind corn, and that process is not fully automated. You can visit the mill and the distillery without visiting home and plantation.

"Looking Out for Number One"

2009-09-27T10:46:00.000-07:00

I think this should be the new motto of UC Berkeley. Its chancellor and vice-chancellor make a pitch in the Washington Post for a new Morrill Act (the act that provided federal support for the land grant colleges). Their plan, however, only calls for federal support for a "limited number of our great public reasearch and teaching universities." I wonder if they have any particular schools in mind.

Behavioral Economics?

2009-09-27T09:25:00.000-07:00

In the New York Times Richard Thaler claims that "with the help of a little behavioral economics" we can increase the number of organ donors. He then describes a number of different schemes that have been used in the the U.S. and other countires and concludes that "the key ... is to make sign up easy." All these years I have been telling my students that if you lower the cost of doing something people will do it more. I thought it was just the law of demand. Does this mean we are all behaviorlists now?

Austrian Economics

2009-09-23T05:24:00.000-07:00

For students interested in Austrian economics (Scott) here are a series of videos you might find interesting.

Economists got it right

2009-09-23T05:22:00.000-07:00

John Taylor's view.

Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission

2009-09-21T04:30:00.000-07:00

The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission began to hold public meetings last week. I wouldn't hold my breath waiting for a definitive analysis. This week I am going to talk to my economic history class about the Panics of 1837 and 1839. I can tell them that in the last decade economists like Peter Rousseau and John Wallis have added a great deal to our understanding of these events that took place more than a century and a half in the past. See this old post. New papers continue to appear on pretty much every financial crisis in American history. I've recently started reseaching the Panic of 1907 because there are parts of the current story about it that do not make sense to me.

Then again, its not clear the prupose of such commissions is actually better understanding. The opinion page of the Sunday NY Times complains about the commissions slow start and wonders if it reflects "the apparent ambivelence of lawmakers to rein in the banks?"

David Levine on Paul Krugman

2009-09-20T15:47:00.000-07:00

David Levine of Washington University also didn't like Krugman's essay in the New York Times.

What I've Been Listening To

2009-09-20T15:37:00.000-07:00

At EconTalk Russ Roberts talking to John Nye about the Great Depression, the backlash against globalization in the early twentieth century, long run changes in the role of government, and more.

At VoxTalks Romesh Vaitilingam talks to Dean Karlan about microfinance and the use of experimental methods in economic research.

Which economists got it wrong?

2009-09-11T05:36:00.000-07:00

Gregory Mankiw’s most recent blog post is “How did economists get it so wrong?” with a link to an answer by Barry Eichengreen. Paul Krugman had a long essay on the topic in last weeks Sunday New York Times. A group of British economists even felt the need to respond when the Queen asked the question. I am getting tired of the question for several reasons. First, many economists were pointing to problems before the recession began. Robert Shiller, Nouriel Roubini, Raghuram Rajan would just be the start of the list. Krugman himself wrote a book titled The Return of Depression Economics. How much warning do people need. Does every economist have to stand up and shout at the same time?

Second, who are the economists who got it wrong. Who is the Irving Fisher of our time?

Third, its not clear that it would have made a difference if all economists had shouted at the same time. Since when did policy makers start doing what economists say. If policymakers listened to economists we wouldn’t have tariffs, quotas, or agricultural price supports.

The irony of the tea party protest

2009-04-16T06:26:00.000-07:00

The irony of holding tea party protests on April 15 is that the Tea Act of 1773 was a tax cut. Prior to the Act the English East India Company had to send tea to London where it paid a duty of about 2 shilling six pence per pound. Only after going through London and paying this duty could it go to the colonies.The Act allowed the Company to ship directly to the colonies, paying only a duty of about three pence per pound in the colonial ports. The purpose of the Act was to aid the East India Company not the colonists, but it resulted in a considerable reduction in taxes on tea shipped to the colonies. The trouble is that many people had done well under the old rules, for instance, profiting from smuggled Dutch tea. While the Tea Act would have lowered the tax for consumers it would have harmed these people.

The Allegory That Would Not Die

2009-03-22T08:48:00.000-07:00

The BBC Online examines the Wizard of Oz as a monetary allegory. I was interviewed because of my paper “The Fable of the Allegory: the Wizard of Oz in Economics” Journal of Economic Education (Summer 2002). I said in the interview that there is no evidence that the Wizard of Oz was written as an allegory. Even those who advocate using it as a monetary allegory generally agree. See, for example, Ranjit Dighe’s book and reply to my paper. I also say that I am not convinced that the allegory adds to the understanding of monetary issues in the late nineteenth century. In particular, I don’t think it add to the understanding of support for the gold standard. In general support for the gold standard was not based on some superstitious notion that only gold could be money. People at the time had experience with gold and silver as well as paper money. Participation in the gold standard required that currency be convertible into gold at a fixed rate. Adherence to this requirement meant that control of the money supply was taken out of the hands of policy makers. When multiple countries adhered to the gold standard it also created a system of fixed exchange rates. Fixed exchange rates remove exchange rate risk and, other things equal, encourage foreign investment. Advocates of the gold standard recognized these benefits. The issues surrounding the adoption of the gold standard in 1900 are still relevant to today. Students can gain historical perspective on the adoption of the euro, and the use of fixed exchange rates or dollarization in less developed countries by studying the gold standard. I am not yet convinced that The Wizard of Oz adds to the understanding of economic history.

Constraining the state's ability to employ force

2009-03-08T08:11:00.000-07:00

"Constraining the state's ability to employ forces: the standing army debates, 1697-99" by Shawn Humphrey and Bradley A. Hansen was just accepted by the Journal of Institutional Economics.

Abstract: Britain's Glorious Revolution of 1688 is one of the most widely studied cases of institutional change. Recent institutional analyses of the Glorious Revolution, however, have failed to address one of the central issues in political science: control of the state’s comparative advantage in violence. This paper examines this issue through analysis of the standing army debates of the late 1690s. Participants in the debates disputed whether a standing army or a militia would be the most effective institutional arrangement to guard against threats from abroad and tyranny at home. Both sides of the debate analyzed the effects of a standing army in terms of the incentives that it created for soldiers, citizens, the monarch, and foreign governments.

Internships

2009-03-07T10:37:00.000-08:00

Think Tanks
The Cato Institute
The Brookings Institution
The American Enterprise Institute
The Heritage Foundation
The Urban Institute

Government
Council of Economic Advisors
Bureau of Labor Statistics
The Bureau of Economic Analysis
Congressional Budget Office
Environmental Protection Agency
Federal Reserve Board
Federal Trade Commission

Business
BB &T
Geico

Development
First People’s Worldwide

Alexander Hamilton

2009-03-07T10:09:00.000-08:00

Robert Wright reviews Hamilton's Curse a new book by Thomas D Lorenzo.

Majoring in Economics

2009-03-03T06:52:00.000-08:00

If you are thinking about majoring in economics you are not alone. Here are stories from NPR and the Chronicle of Higher Education.

More Historical Perspective on Finance

2009-02-17T10:11:00.000-08:00

Ed Perkins writes about The Rise and Fall of Relationship Banking at Common Place.

Rodrik on the Reinvention of Capitalism

2009-02-17T09:31:00.000-08:00

Dani Rodrik writes that "we need to contemplate a transition from the national version of the mixed economy to its global counterpart.
This means imagining a better balance between markets and their supporting institutions at the global level. Sometimes, this will require extending institutions outward from nation-states and strengthening global governance. At other times, it will mean preventing markets from expanding beyond the reach of institutions that must remain national.The right approach will differ across country groupings and among issue areas.
Designing the next capitalism will not be easy."

Reviews of the Lords of Finance

2009-02-15T08:27:00.000-08:00

Both the New York Times and the Washington Post review Liaquat Ahamed’s Lords of Finance: the Bankers Who Broke the World. The book is about the leaders of the central banks of the U.S., England France and Germany during the years leading up to the Great Depression. Both reviews are quite positive. I have not looked at the book yet, but I m a little worried because, although both reviewers liked the book, both also seem to have come away from it with little understanding of how monetary policy, generally, or the gold standard, specifically, operated. Joe Nocera in the Times states that “In a brilliant stroke, Schact created a new currency, the Rentemark, then chose the exact right moment to fix it to the mark … In so doing, he restored faith in Germany’s currency and beat back inflation.” The key to beating inflation isn’t to introduce a new currency at the right moment. The trick is to not keep printing that currency at an ever more rapid pace. Likewise, Frank Ahrens in the Post quotes Ahamed to the effect that all the gold mined up to 1914 “was barely enough to fill a modest two-story town house.” He then adds that, “There simply was not enough of it to fund a global conflict or to allow economic recovery afterward.” To be clear the first quote is Ahamed the second is Ahrens. The small supply of gold is of course what made it useful as an international monetary standard. People didn’t carry around bags of gold. They had long used bank notes or checks as we do now. People can by the same amount of stuff with a few valuable dollars as they can with lots of worthless dollars. By requiring convertibility at a fixed rate the gold standard placed a constraint on changes in the money supply. It limited inflation and exchange rate risk, and encouraged foreign investment. It was adopted for the same sorts of reasons that countries sometimes peg their currency to the dollar or the franc, for instance. The gold standard did not create complete stability. Gold flows and, therefore, changes in the money supply could be influenced by political factors as well as economic ones. And the United States experienced periodic financial crises while on either a gold or bimetallic standard.

When I have had a chance to look at the book I’ll let you know what I think of it, but I worry that the reviewers do not seem to have come away with a very clear picture of the way things worked.

What I am Listening To

2009-02-10T09:23:00.000-08:00

Daron Acemoglu talks to Russ Roberts about the financial crisis.

The New Deal

2009-02-01T07:10:00.000-08:00

In the Washington Post, Amity Shlaes writes about the failure of the New Deal to promote economic recovery. She points out that unemployment remained high and investment low for the entire decade. But this isn't really news. After all, the common wisdom is that the War ended the Depression. Bob Higgs, for one, disputes this common wisdom, nevertheless if people believe that the War ended the Depression they must know that the New Deal didn't.

So, Shlaes goes further. Because of New Deal policies "the Depression lasted a half a decade longer than it had to, from 1929 to 1940, rather than say 1929 to 1936." So we had to have depression but it shouldn't have been so great. She declares that "the monetary shock in the first years of the Depression was imense, but it was this duration that made the Depression Great." In other words, the economy would have recovered on its own if not for FDR. The recovery that did take place had nothing to do with Roosevelt. Shlaes even has a pretty good idea of when the economy would have been complete. If not for FDR’s policies, the three years of economic decline before he took office would have been wiped out three years after he took office.

In a recent paper in the AER Gauti Eggertsson points out that this sort of argument depends on the belief in a huge coincidence. In discussing recent analysis of the New Deal, he notes that “a surprisingly large part of the literature treats the recovery as inevitable and/or exogenous and coincidental with Roosevelt inauguration.” It is surprising because as he shows in a number of graphs the recovery of investment, production, and prices all coincided with the inauguration. Eggertsson argues instead that Roosevelt created a shift in expectations that caused economic recovery.

Its not hard to identify New Deal policies that do not appear conducive to growth. On the other hand, assuming that the recovery just happened to coincide with Roosevelt's innauguration seems like a questionable place to begin your analysis.

More historical perspective on financial crises

2009-01-30T10:54:00.000-08:00

Richard Sylla, Robert Wright and David Cowen examine Alexander Hamilton's response to the financial crisis of 1792.

Business History at Oxford

2009-01-30T10:30:00.000-08:00

Chris McKenna talks about business history at Oxford's Said School of Business.

Narrative History and the Social Sciences

2009-01-29T06:14:00.000-08:00

I just listened to an interview with John Demos at the Making History Podcast. Demos is author of the award winning books Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England(1982) and The Unredeemed Captive: A Family Story from Early America (1994). He talks about his movement from doing social science history to doing narrative history. I was thinking I would rather not draw a line between the two. It doesn't matter whether you consider yourself a social scientist or an historian, sometimes the best way to answer a question is to tell a story.

Some places narrative never seems to go out of style. Story appears to be the primary method of learning at top business schools. And, by the way, MIT is putting more free stuff on the web including case studies from the Sloan school.

More Historical Perspective on Economic Crises

2009-01-28T05:32:00.000-08:00

Video of a forum at The Council on Foreign Relations with Michael Bordo, Jerry Muller, Robert Shiller, and Richard Sylla

Historical Perspective on Financial Crises

2009-01-27T10:22:00.000-08:00

For many years it was regarded as appropriate to lay the blame for the Panic of 1837 on Andrew Jackson. In 1832 Jackson vetoed the recharter of the second Bank of the United States and began to place the government’s deposits in other banks. With the conservative influence of the Bank of the United States gone, his critics claimed, other banks over issued their notes, fueling a speculative boom. Peter Temin showed that this explanation of the Panic of 1837 paid insufficient attention to the international sector. If banks were over issuing their notes, he argued, then the ratio of notes to reserves should have been decreasing, but it was increasing. The number of bank notes in circulation was increasing, but bank reserves were increasing even more rapidly. Reserves were increasing not because of Jackson’s policies but because of international forces. Because the country was on a bimetallic standard, the supply of money was ultimately dependent on the amount of specie in the country. Temin argued that both the inflation of the early 1830s and the crisis were caused by specie flows that were driven by external events. While acknowledging the negative influence of external forces, Peter Rousseau has recently shifted attention back to internal forces. International forces set the conditions for the Panic, but the economy was pushed over the edge by distribution of the federal surplus and the Jackson administration’s requirement that land purchases be made in specie, both of which drained specie from New York City banks.
The Panic of 1837 has received far more attention than the Panic of 1839, but for many the real trouble did not begin until 1839. The Panic of 1839 initially appeared to be a sequel to the Panic of 1837. However, unlike the Panic of 1837, there was no quick recovery. John Wallis has attributed the difference between the two panics to the run up in state debt that occurred between them. The boom of the 1830s involved mutually reinforcing expansions of land sales and internal improvements. The prospect of low cost transportation fueled demand for western lands; land sales in turn raised the revenue of western states and promised even further increases in revenue in the future. People were willing to buy land because states were going to build railroads and canals, the states were willing to borrow for internal improvements because people were going to come and buy the land. The credit crunch brought and end to both. Land sales and prices fell, the market for state bonds collapsed.
Possibly the most useful lesson to be gained from this history is humility. More than a century and a half after the panics of 1837 and 1839 we are still trying figure out what happened. It might be useful to keep this in mind when reading (or writing) diagnoses of the current financial problems.

What I am listening to

2009-01-26T10:13:00.000-08:00

Russell Roberts and Robin Hanson talking about truth and disagreement in economics at econtalk

http://www.econtalk.org/archives/2009/01/roberts_and_han.html

The Costs of Free Trade?

2006-12-31T11:20:00.000-08:00

The Costs of Free Trade?
There is probably no subject upon which the average economist and the average non-economist disagree more. A recent opinion piece in the Washington Post (December 23, 2006 A21) by Byron Dorgan and Sherrod Brown on "The Costs of Free Trade" provides an illustration of why economists tend to support free trade. Dorgan and Brown argue that because of free trade multinational corporations search the world for the cheap labor and lax regulation. These corporations exploit people, including children, working them for long hours and for little pay. The competition from this low wage labor hurts American workers, driving down their real wages, and driving up our trade deficit because American producers can’t compete. It is easy to show that every element of the argument is wrong.

“The result has been a global race to the bottom as corporations troll the world for the cheapest labor, the fewest health, safety and environmental regulations, and the governments most unfriendly to labor rights.” (Dorgan and Brown)

Multinational corporations do not scour the World for cheap labor. If they did, the majority of foreign direct investment would go to the lowest income countries in the World. It does not. For instance, in 2003, the top three targets for U.S. foreign investment were the United Kingdom, Canada, and the Netherlands. People in the United States invested more in Switzerland than in all of Africa. Most of our imports also come from developed countries. China and Mexico are the only non-developed countries in the list of top ten suppliers of imports to the United States.

“Workers are grossly underpaid, exploited and abused, and they have virtually no rights. Many, including children, work 10, 12, 14 hours a day, six or seven days a week, for only a few dollars a day.” (Dorgan and Brown)

It is of course possible to find example of corporations operating in less developed countries and paying low wages for long hours. What we should not overlook is that people often line up to get these jobs because they are better than the next best alternative. Would these people be better off if we did not buy the products they produce? It would be nice if people in less developed countries had higher incomes, but taking away the jobs created by foreign corporations won’t do the trick.

“It is no coincidence that salaries and wages today are the lowest percentage of gross domestic product since the government began keeping track of this in 1947.” (Dorgan and Brown)

Wages and salaries as a share of national income have fallen, but total compensation of labor has not. Total compensation includes wages and salaries plus employer contributions to pension plans and insurance and employer contributions to government social insurance. Total compensation of labor rose from about 61 percent of national income in 1959 to 66 percent in 1970 and has been between 64 and 66 percent in almost every year since then, including the most recent decade. Raising trade barriers would only low real wages by increasing the costs of goods that people want to buy.

“The results of such trade agreements are skyrocketing trade deficits” (Dorgan and Brown)

It is not true that American firms and American workers can’t compete. While it is true that the United States has been running record trade deficits, exports have also reached all time highs. American firms successfully sell many goods and services abroad. We run trade deficits because we use more goods than we produce, just as China’s trade surplus is the result not of low wages, but of the fact that the Chinese produce more goods and services each year than they use. Our production and exports have increased rapidly but not as rapidly as the amount of goods we are using for consumption and investment.